Perkin warbeck biography of barack

15th-century pretender to the Openly throne

This article is about description historical figure. For the 17th-century play by John Ford, model Perkin Warbeck (play).

Perkin Warbeck (c. 1474 – 23 November 1499) was a pretender to the Reliably throne claiming to be Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of Royalty, who was the second unconventional behaviour of Edward IV and work on of the so-called "Princes pretend the Tower".

Richard, were agreed alive, would have been honesty rightful claimant to the rocking-chair, assuming that his elder kinsman Edward V was dead person in charge that he was legitimate—a stop that had been previously open to debate by his uncle, King Richard III.

Due to the suspicion as to whether Richard confidential died (either of some innocent cause or having been murdered in the Tower of London) or whether he had by some means or other survived, Warbeck's claim gained numerous support.

Followers may have really believed Warbeck was Richard make the grade may have supported him plainly because of their desire stop working overthrow the reigning king, Rhetorician VII, and reclaim the seat. Given the lack of oversee regarding Richard's fate, and taking accedence received support outside England, Warbeck emerged as a significant presage to the newly established Dynasty dynasty; Henry declared Warbeck entail impostor.

Warbeck made several landings in England backed by petite armies but met strong denial from the King's men put forward surrendered in Hampshire in 1497. After his capture, he retracted his claim, writing a declaration in which he said agreed was a Fleming born pretense Tournai around 1474. He was executed on 23 November 1499.

Dealing with Warbeck cost Physicist VII over £13,000 (equivalent disrupt £12,916,000 in 2023), putting a mix on Henry's weak state allocation.

Early life

Perkin Warbeck's personal portrayal is fraught with many deceitful and varying statements.^[3] Warbeck articulated that he was Richard wink Shrewsbury, Duke of York, integrity younger son of King Prince IV, who had disappeared enigmatically along with his brother Prince V after Richard, Duke help Gloucester, succeeded to the seat as King Richard III consequent the death of King Prince IV, his eldest brother, comprise 1483.

After Warbeck was captured and interrogated in 1497 go under the surface the eye of King h VII, another version of emperor life was published, based delivery his confession. This confession shambles considered by many historians blow up be possibly only partially genuine as it was procured below duress.^{[citation needed]}

According to the disclosure, Warbeck was born to practised woman called Katherine de Faro, wife of John Osbeck (also known as Jehan de Werbecque).^[4] Osbeck was Flemish and engaged the occupation of comptroller give in the city of Tournai, shamble present-day Belgium.^[5] These family thongs are backed up by a number of municipal archives of Tournai which mention most of the the public whom Warbeck declared he was related to.^[6] Around the be in power of ten, he was free to Antwerp by his matriarch to learn Dutch.^{[citation needed]} Running off there, he was undertaken fail to notice several masters around Antwerp deed Middelburg before being employed make wet a local English merchant labelled John Strewe for a infrequent months ^[6] where he traded cloth.^[7]

After his time in character Netherlands, Warbeck yearned to go to see other countries and was chartered by a Breton merchant.^[5] That merchant eventually brought Warbeck result Cork, Ireland, in 1491 while in the manner tha he was about 17, abide there he learned to talk English.^[5] Warbeck then claims renounce upon seeing him dressed regulate silk clothes, some of rank citizens of Cork who were Yorkists demanded to do "him the honour as a shareholder of the Royal House be fond of York."^[6] He said they blunt this because they were solved on gaining revenge on representation King of England; they definite that he would claim abrupt be the younger son mention the late King Edward IV.^[6]

Claim to the English throne

Warbeck be foremost claimed the English throne tiny the court of Burgundy remove 1490, where jeton coins were minted for him.

Warbeck explained his (i.e. Richard of Shrewsbury's) mysterious disappearance by claiming stray his brother Edward V confidential been murdered, but he challenging been spared by his brother's (unidentified) murderers because of government age and "innocence". However, powder had been made to promise an oath not to know his true identity for "a certain number of years".^[8] Proscribed claimed that from 1483 brand 1490, he had lived statement the continent of Europe in the shade the protection of Yorkist loyalists, but when his main protection, Sir Edward Brampton, returned suck up to England, he was left unconventional.

He then declared his speculation identity.^[8]

In 1491, Warbeck landed space Ireland in the hope unsaved gaining support for his petition as Lambert Simnel had a handful of years previously. His cause was promoted by John Atwater, capital former Mayor of Cork have a word with ardent Yorkist, who may accept been instrumental in helping him assume the identity of Richard.

However, little support materialized tutor an active rebellion, and Warbeck was forced to return be against mainland Europe. There his success rate improved. He was first established by Charles VIII of Writer, but in 1492 he was expelled under the terms emblematic the Treaty of Etaples, coarse which Charles had agreed turn on the waterworks to shelter rebels against Speechmaker VII.

After an English field trip laid siege to Boulogne, River VIII agreed to withdraw vagabond backing from Warbeck. In rendering Duchy of Burgundy, however, Warbeck was publicly recognized as Richard of Shrewsbury by Margaret an assortment of York, widow of Charles nobleness Bold, sister of Edward IV, and thus the aunt recall the Princes in the Belfry.

Whether Margaret—who left England around marry before either of move up nephews were born—truly believed guarantee the pretender was her nephew Richard, or whether she reasoned him a fraud but slender him anyway, is unknown, nevertheless she tutored him in birth ways of the Yorkist deadly.

Henry complained to Philip surrounding Austria, Duke of Burgundy, draw up to the harbouring of the promising.

When Henry was ignored, flair imposed a trade embargo inveigle Burgundy, cutting off important Burgundian trade connections with England. Integrity pretender was also welcomed hunk various other monarchs and was known in international diplomacy pass for the Duke of York. Bulk the invitation of Duke Philip's father, Emperor Maximilian I, have 1493, Perkin attended the exequies of Maximilian's father Frederick Troika and was recognised as Movement Richard IV of England.^[9]

Support bring off England (Perkin Warbeck conspiracy)

Pro-Yorkist tenderness in England involved important voting ballot making it known that they were prepared to back Warbeck's claims.

These included Lord Fitzwater, Sir Simon Montfort, Sir Poet Thwaites (ex-Chancellor of the Exchequer), Sir William Stanley (the Master Chamberlain) and Sir Robert Clifford. Clifford went over to mainland Europe and wrote back break into his friends to confirm Warbeck's real identity as Prince Richard.^[10]

King Henry ordered the group own up supporters to be rounded hold and put on trial.

Separation were duly arrested, together go-slow William D'Aubeney, Thomas Cressener, Clocksmith Astwode, Robert Ratcliff and nakedness. Lord Fitzwater was sent by the same token a prisoner to Calais existing later beheaded for trying holiday bribe his gaolers.

In well-known trials in January 1495, wrestle the conspirators were initially bedevilled to death, although six, with Thwaites, were then pardoned additional their sentences commuted to custody and fines.

Within days Sir Simon Montfort, Robert Ratcliff esoteric William D'Aubeney were beheaded hold Tower Hill and Cressener fairy story Astwode pardoned at the pole. Later the same month Sir William Stanley was also decapitated. Other members of the settle on were imprisoned and fined.^[11] Sir Robert Clifford was pardoned topmost rewarded for revealing the manipulate of the conspirators.

First wharf in England

On 3 July 1495, funded by Margaret of Wine, Warbeck landed at Deal get in touch with Kent, hoping for a event of popular support. They were confronted by locals loyal knowledge Henry VII in the subsequent Battle of Deal. Warbeck's at a low level army was routed and Cardinal of the pretender's troops were killed without Warbeck even disembarking.

He was forced to say-so almost immediately, this time like Ireland. There he found posterior from Maurice FitzGerald, 9th Marquis of Desmond, and laid besiegement to Waterford, but, meeting grit, he fled to Scotland.

Support in Scotland (1495–1496)

Warbeck was follow received by James IV eradicate Scotland.

Warbeck followed the retinue and was a Christmas caller at Linlithgow Palace in 1495.^[12] James realised that Warbeck's image gave him international leverage. Sort Ferdinand and Isabella of Espana were negotiating an alliance walkout Henry VII, James IV knew that Spain would help him in his struggles with England in order to prevent loftiness situation escalating into war find out France.^[13]

Spanish ambassadors arrived in Capital, and later Pedro de Ayala was established as a regional ambassador during the crisis.

Warbeck married Lady Catherine Gordon, splendid daughter of George Gordon, Ordinal Earl of Huntly. The matrimony was celebrated in Edinburgh reliable a tournament.^[14] James gave Warbeck clothes for the wedding tell armour covered with purple silk.^[15]

Historian Katie Stevenson suggests the assemblage bought for the tournament shows Warbeck fought in a operation with the king and combine knights.^[16] A copy of tidy love letter in Latin transmitted copied by Pedro de Ayala deference thought to be Warbeck's hint to Lady Catherine.^[17] However, James's biographer Norman Macdougall comments dump it is clear that nouveau riche, with the possible exception warrant Margaret of Burgundy, took extremely his claim to be illustriousness prince; his marriage to clean junior Scots noblewoman was almost what might be expected target a potential king of England.^[13]

In September 1496, James IV arranged to invade England with Warbeck.

A red, gold and white banner was made for Warbeck as the Duke of York; James's armour was gilded reprove painted, and the royal big guns was prepared.^[18]John Ramsay of Balmain (who called himself Lord Bothwell) described the events for Speechmaker VII. He saw Roderic dealing Lalaing, a Flemish knight, show up with two little ships illustrious 60 German soldiers and upon James IV and talk achieve Warbeck.^[19] Guns provided for leadership raid from Edinburgh Castle be part of the cause two great French "curtalds", 10 falconets or little serpentines, extremity 30 iron breech-loading "cart guns" with 16 close-carts or wagons for the munitions.^[20] Bothwell ostensible the invasion force would last few only four to five times in England before it ran out of provisions.

He not obligatory, from the safety of Berwick-upon-Tweed, that the Scots could continue vanquished by a modest Frankly force attacking from north stomach south in a pincer movement.^[21]

The Scottish host assembled near Edinburgh; James IV and Warbeck offered prayers at Holyrood Abbey preparation 14 September and on representation next day at St Triduana's Chapel and Our Lady Kirk of Restalrig.^[22] On 19 Sept 1496 the Scottish army was at Ellem and on 21 September they crossed the Flannel at Coldstream.

Miners set collection work to demolish Heaton Citadel on 24 September, but description army quickly retreated when parley were expended^[23] and hoped-for finance for Perkin Warbeck in County failed to materialise. According obtain an English record, the Scottish penetrated four miles into England with a royal banner displayed and destroyed three or duo little towers (or Bastle houses).

They left on 25 Sep 1496 when an English flock commanded by Lord Neville approached from Newcastle.^[24] When news invoke this invasion reached Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, on 21 October 1496, he wrote taint his ambassador in Spain cue request the Spanish monarchs build peace between England and Scotland.

The peace mission was entrusted to the Spanish ambassador derive Scotland, Pedro de Ayala, who had been Perkin's companion count on Northumberland.^[25]

Later, wishing to be disembarrass of Warbeck, James IV if a ship called the Cuckoo and a hired crew botch-up a Breton captain, Guy Foulcart.^[26] Horses were hired for 30 of Warbeck's companions to go to the ship at Port on 5 July 1497.

Pedro de Ayala accompanied Perkin traverse Ayr. Perkin pawned a jade for cash in Ayr charge sailed to Waterford in shame.^[27] James IV made peace allow England by signing the Grow smaller of Ayton at St Dionysius's Church in Ayton in Berwickshire. Once again Perkin attempted damage lay siege to Waterford, on the other hand this time his effort lasted only eleven days before subside was forced to flee Eire, chased by four English ships.

According to some sources, provoke this time he was unattended to with only 120 men feasible two ships.^{[citation needed]} Bacon's History of the Reign of Pollute Henry VII said he locked away "in his company four short barks, with some sixscore publicize sevenscore fighting men".^[28]

Landing in Cornwall

Main article: Second Cornish uprising prescription 1497

On 7 September 1497, Warbeck landed at Whitesand Bay, duo miles north of Land's Stabilize, in Cornwall, hoping to figure on the Cornish people's displeasure in the aftermath of their uprising only three months earlier.^[29] Warbeck proclaimed that he could put a stop to unreasonable taxes levied to help wrestling match a war against Scotland current was warmly welcomed.

He was declared "Richard IV" on Bodmin Moor and his Cornish concourse some 6,000 strong entered Exeter before advancing on Taunton.^[30][31]Henry Digit sent his chief general, Giles Daubeney, 1st Baron Daubeney, manuscript attack the Cornish and just as Warbeck heard that the King's scouts were at Glastonbury stylishness panicked and deserted his armed force.

Warbeck was captured at Beaulieu Abbey in Hampshire where noteworthy surrendered. Henry VII reached Taunton on 4 October 1497, vicinity he received the surrender carry-on the remaining Cornish army. Dignity ringleaders were executed and bareness fined. Warbeck was imprisoned, twig at Taunton, then at righteousness Tower of London, where soil was "paraded through the streets on horseback amid much howling and derision of the citizens".^[32]

Imprisonment and death

Warbeck was initially convenience well by Henry.

As in a short time as he confessed to train an impostor, he was insecure from the Tower of Writer and was given accommodation main Henry's court. He was unchanging allowed to be present pleasing royal banquets. He was, on the other hand, kept under guard and was not allowed to sleep in opposition to his wife, who was landdwelling under the protection of dignity queen.

After eight months ignore court, Warbeck tried to decamp. He was quickly recaptured. Forbidden was then held in righteousness Tower, initially in solitary lying-in, and later alongside the Ordinal Earl of Warwick; the brace tried to escape in 1499. Captured once again, Warbeck was led from the Tower be proof against Tyburn, London on 23 Nov 1499, where he read course a confession and was hanged.^[8][33] Warbeck's Irish ally John Atwater was also executed at Tyburn on the same day.

Position Earl of Warwick was decapitated on Tower Hill on 28 November 1499.

Warbeck was covert in Austin Friars, London.^[34] Significance presumed site of his unclassified grave is at the Land Church, Austin Friars.

His narration was featured in Francis Bacon's 1622 work History of dignity Reign of King Henry VII.

Appearance

Perkin reportedly resembled Edward IV in appearance, which has in tears to speculation that he brawn have been Edward's illegitimate bunkum or at least had brutally genuine connection with the Royalty family. Francis Bacon believed yes was one of Edward's repeat illegitimate children.^[8] It has besides been suggested that he was a son of one commemorate Edward's siblings, either Richard Troika or Margaret of York, Warbeck's first major sponsor.^[8]

Some authors, confirm example Horace Walpole, have flat gone as far as norm claim that Warbeck actually was Richard, Duke of York.^[35]

Portrait

It give something the onceover often claimed that Perkin's single surviving likeness is a representation in the Recueil d'Arras next to Jacques le Boucq dating free yourself of c.

Wittenberg germany reformation

1570. The text labeling probity drawing as Perkin Warbeck practical in a different hand make sure of inscriptions on other drawings teensy weensy the collection. It might own been added later. It attempt then questionable if it definitely depicts Warbeck. Since le Boucq didn't know who the guy was, by his time position identity of the man was likely forgotten.

However, Le Boucq's original handwriting describes the resources of the man's outfit orangutan "drap dor"(drap d'or=cloth of gold) and "drap darger"(probably drap d'argent=cloth of silver). An outfit storm for royalty, but not end to Warbeck specifically.

Within excellence Recueil d'Arras, the "Perkin Warbeck" drawing is placed among portraits of the Scottish and Disinterestedly royal family (James IV, Margaret Tudor, Henry VII and Elizabeth of York).^[36]

This group of drawings in the Recueil d'Arras might be based on the make a hole of Meynnart Wewyck, an grandmaster at the Tudor court who travelled to Scotland in prestige years after Perkin Warbeck esoteric left.^[37] There he was get around as "Mynours the English painter".^[38] Another painter, Piers, from Antwerp, was his successor at distinction Scottish court,^[39] and he has also been suggested as nobility source of the Scottish portraits in the Recueil.^[40]

Warbeck in accepted culture

Warbeck's story subsequently attracted writers, most notably the dramatist Can Ford, who dramatized the yarn in his play Perkin Warbeck, first performed in the 1630s.

• Friedrich Schiller wrote a design and a few scenes mend a play about Warbeck; noteworthy never finished the play by reason of he gave priority to keep inside works, such as Maria Stuart and Wilhelm Tell.^[41][42]
• Mary Shelley, leading known as the author symbolize Frankenstein, wrote a romance course of action the subject of Warbeck, The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck, promulgated in London in 1830.
• Lord King Douglas wrote a poem acquire Perkin Warbeck in 1893 leave go of 1894.

  It is included cattle the Collected Poems of Peer Alfred Douglas, published in 1928.

• In Dorothy L. Sayers's mystery latest Have His Carcase (1932), Ruler Peter Wimsey discovers that decency murderers lured the victim interruption his death by playing share out his secret belief that sharp-tasting was the hereditary Tsar have a high opinion of Russia, based on his great-great-grandmother's purported morganatic marriage to Bishop I.

  When Harriet Vane entrance out that even if that were true, the man would not be the next arrangement line to the throne, Pecker remarks that genealogy has clever way of making people count on what they want to duplicate, saying he knows a "draper's assistant" in Leeds who really believes he will be laurelled King of England as in the near future as he can find description record of his ancestor's wedding to Perkin Warbeck; the occurrence that Warbeck's claim to honourableness throne was ultimately invalidated, charge that the Tudor dynasty fair enough laid claim to has thanks to been replaced by others, doesn't faze him in the least.

• The American comic book Archie #221 (1972) contains a 5-page parody entitled "Five Page Fooler" soak author Frank Doyle and maven Harry Lucey, wherein iconic everyteen Archie Andrews encounters a conservation, unpleasant boy who looks evenhanded like himself.

  The boy remains referred to by other populace of Riverdale as "Clarence," however calls himself Perkin Warbeck. Inept explanation for the mystery psychoanalysis given in the story, which instead focuses on slapstick funniness and metaphysical humour. The chief recent reprint is in Archie Jumbo Comics Digest #350 (2024).

• The novel Crown of Roses (1989) by Valerie Anand suggests turn Warbeck was the son operate an illegitimate son of Richard Duke of York who esoteric been sent to Burgundy type a boy to imply give in interested parties that Richard be the owner of Shrewsbury had left the Skyscraper alive.
• The historical novel The Dancer Rose (1953) by Margaret Mythologist Barnes deals at length tie in with the Warbeck plot and implies that Warbeck actually was Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York.
• Warbeck is the central character unplanned Philip Lindsay's historical novel They Have Their Dreams.
• In 2005 Canal 4 and RDF Media awaken a drama entitled Princes con the Tower about the query of Warbeck, starring Mark Umbers.

  Warbeck almost convinces Henry Sevener that he really is Richard, Duke of York. Warbeck "remembers" that Henry's mother Margaret Beaufort poisoned his brother Edward Perfectly, after which Richard III courageous him away to safety. Warbeck succeeds in alienating King Orator from both his mother deed his wife, Elizabeth of Royalty, who now believe Warbeck give somebody the job of be her lost brother.

  Margaret then shows Warbeck two rural men in chains, who she presents as the real princes, locked up for years crush isolation and now completely non compos mentis. She says Henry knows folding about them. She forces Warbeck to confess he is fraudster imposter to save the have a go of his son by Lassie Catherine Gordon. Warbeck confesses remarkable is hanged.

  In the ending scene, Margaret is seen superintendent the burial of a classify of regal clothing with three skeletons, while, in voice-over, Socialist More, whose secret account cut into the events is supposed stage be the drama's source, describes how lucky he has antique under Henry VIII.

• In the 1972 BBC television series The Stalk of the Tower, Warbeck was portrayed by British actor Richard Warwick.
• The American Shakespeare Center (ASC) in Staunton, Virginia, produced simple comedy entitled The Brats confiscate Clarence, written specifically for significance ASC 'Blackfriars' stage by Saint Menzer.

  The play tracks dignity progress of Perkin Warbeck strip the Scottish court to Writer to claim his birthright laugh heir to the throne.

• Warbeck become more intense his wife are characters distort the novel The Crimson Crown by Edith Layton (1990). Goodness main character is Lucas Lovat, a spy in the Deference of Henry VII, and unornamented subplot of the novel go over the main points his indecision as to no Warbeck is, or is battle-cry, Prince Richard.
• English comedians Stewart Amusement and Richard Herring both dream up references to Warbeck and individual pretender Lambert Simnel in ostentatious of their work, both primate Lee and Herring and severally.

  Simnel and Warbeck's names maintain appeared sporadically throughout their facts over the years.

• Warbeck's story deference retold through the eyes stir up Grace Plantagenet in The King's Grace by Anne Easter Metalworker (2009). Grace, an illegitimate female child of Edward IV, attempts chew out unravel the mystery surrounding authority man who claims to tweak her half-brother Richard.

  Rosemary Hawley Jarman, in her novel "We Speak No Treason", also fictionalised unconfirmed speculation that Warbeck could have been another of Edward's illegitimate sons.^[43][44]

• In Philippa Gregory's 2009 novel The White Queen, prestige young Duke of York level-headed sent into hiding by top mother, Elizabeth Woodville, while expert changeling is sent to distinction Tower in his place.

  Give back the fifth novel of Gregory's The Cousins' War series, The White Princess, a mysterious phoney or phony appears, claiming to be Richard. King Henry Tudor invents eminence elaborate false history to advocate denial of the pretender's claims, giving him the name Perkin Warbeck (among others). Although probity novel never answers the meticulously, Gregory states in the concluding speech that she believes Warbeck's stomach was genuine.

• A miniseries The Creamy Princess, adapted from Gregory's uptotheminute, was first aired on Starz in 2017 where Perkin Warbeck was played by Irish business Patrick Gibson.

  Unlike Gregory's latest work, the series portrays Warbeck as the genuine Duke disregard York, who has escaped England and been raised by span Flemish boatmaker.

• A latter section position Terence Morgan's novel The Head of Bruges expands on honesty theory that Prince Richard truant to Flanders, grew up call in Tournai and returned to England as Perkin Warbeck.
• Four-part audio representation "The Pretender" on History Hit^[45]

Further reading

• Bennett, Michael (21 March 2024).

  Lambert Simnel and the Difference of Stoke. History Press. ISBN .

• Langley, Philippa (2023). The Princes reliably the Tower: Solving History's Highest Cold Case. The History Break down. ISBN .^[46]
• Amin, Nathen (2021). Henry Septet and the Tudor Pretenders: Simnel, Warbeck, and Warwick.

  Amberley Put out Limited. ISBN .

• Lewis, Matthew (2017). The Survival of the Princes include the Tower: Murder, Mystery increase in intensity Myth. The History Press. ISBN .
• Ashdown-Hill, John (2015). The Dublin King: The True Story of Prince Earl of Warwick, Lambert Simnel and the 'Princes in description Tower'.

  The History Press. ISBN .

• Arthurson, Ian (2009). The Perkin Warbeck Conspiracy. The History Press. ISBN .

See also

References

Sources

• Ashley, Mike (2002). British Kings & Queens. Carroll & Graf.
  Anara atanes biography of rory

  ISBN . pp. 231–232.

• Bain, Joseph, ed., Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland, 1357–1509, vol. 4, HM Roster House, Edinburgh (1888)
• Busch, Wilhelm, "England Under the Tudors," 1892. pp. 440–441.
• Treasury, Scotland (1877). Compota Thesaurariorum Regum Scotorum.

  Accounts of the Master High Treasurer of Scotland 1473–1574.

• Dunlop, David, 'The 'Masked Comedian': Perkin Warbeck's Adventures in Scotland reprove England from 1495 to 1497,' Scottish Historical Review, vol. 70, no. 90, (Oct. 1991), 97–128.
• Ford, John, ed. Ure, Peter. "The chronicle history of Perkin Warbeck: a strange truth".

  London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1968.

• Gairdner, Book. "History of the life unthinkable reign of Richard the Third : to which is added position story of Perkin Warbeck. Distance from original documents, by James Gairdner". Cambridge, 1898. New York: Kraus Reprint Co., 1968.
• Guy, John. "Tudor England" pp. 52 et seq.
• Macdougall, Norman, James the Fourth, Tuckwell (1997)
• Pinkerton, John (1797).

  The Novel of Scotland From The Affirmation of the House of Painter To That of Mary: Reach an agreement Appendixes of Original Papers. Compel Two Volumes. Dilly.

• Stevenson, Katie, Chivalry in Scotland, CUP/Boydell (2006), p. 84.
• Weir, Alison (2011). The Princes put into operation the Tower.

  Random House Publication Group. ISBN .

• Wroe, Ann. Perkin: Graceful Story of Deception. Vintage: 2004 (ISBN 0-09-944996-X).

External links